GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an amino acid and neurotransmitter. GABA is your brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. Its role is to keep glutamate, the primary excitatory transmitter, from overwhelming you.
Too much glutamate can cause a seizure, and too much GABA can put you in a coma. A healthy brain maintains a critical balance of GABA and glutamate.
GABA acts like a “brake” on neuron circuits during stress. Low GABA levels can result in anxiety, insomnia, poor mood and restlessness.
Clinical studies show that boosting GABA with a supplement relieves anxiety, stress, and boosts the production of alpha brain waves.[i] If GABA is optimized in your brain you’ll feel focused, relaxed and stress-free.
GABA helps:
- Balance mood. GABA has an inhibitory effect on overly stimulated neurons. Low GABA levels lead to anxiety, depression and insomnia. GABA helps restore that balance. Promoting a more positive mood which improves focus and relaxation.
- Boost Human Growth Hormone. Bodybuilders and athletes use GABA before resistance training. Studies show GABA boosts blood levels of Human Growth Hormone. Promoting greater recovery support and lean muscle growth.
- Recovery from addiction. Some addiction doctors have been administering drugs that enhance the brain’s GABA-receptors. Normalizing GABA receptors takes away the craving and anxiety that one would typically experience in the absence of the addictive drug.
Table of Contents
Overview
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the major inhibitory or relaxing neurotransmitter in your brain.[ii] GABA’s primary role is to keep the major excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate in check.
GABA is synthesized in brain cells from glutamate. It’s estimated that 40% of the synapses in the human brain work with GABA and therefore have GABA receptors.
GABA enhances normal sleep cycles, and improves blood pressure. GABA stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete Human Growth Hormone. And helps produce endorphins that make you feel good after a workout or sex.
When you normalize GABA levels you’ll experience a reduction in anxiety, insomnia, nervousness, restlessness and stress.
Benzodiazepine drugs like Valium and Xanax work by increasing GABA receptor sensitivity.[iii]
How does GABA Work in the Brain?
GABA helps brain health and function in several ways. But two in particular stand out.
- GABA works by preventing neural signaling associated with anxiety from reaching other neurons. It does this by attaching to the receptors that would otherwise excite those neurons. Over-stimulating neurons in certain areas of your brain is what causes anxiety-related symptoms.
Researchers in Japan studied the calming effects of GABA with 8 volunteers. They had study subjects cross a suspension bridge as the stressful stimulus.
The placebo subjects in this group showed significant drops in blood level markers indicating high stress levels. While the GABA group showed significantly higher blood levels of these same markers.
GABA worked as a natural relaxant and its effects could be seen within 1 hour of taking GABA. The researchers concluded that GABA could enhance immunity from stress.[iv]
- GABA also helps decrease Beta brain waves and increase Alpha brain waves.[v] Beta brain waves are important for attention, alertness, concentration and developing memories. But excess levels of concentration, particularly during stress, can lead to anxiety, depression, insomnia and more stress.
When you are in an alert state, both Alpha and Beta brain waves can be stimulated. But the type of alertness will determine which brain wave is produced.
Alertness during an Alpha wave state is associated with a relaxed state. And a stressed alert state produces a Beta wave. But an excess of Beta brain waves contributes to a variety of nervous disorders including anxiety and stress.
As a side note, I’m writing this while listening to binaural music which produces an Alpha state. It allows for a relaxed environment which promotes creativity and productivity.
How things go bad
Low levels of GABA are associated with a variety of health problems.
↑ Anxiety[vi], panic attacks, stress and insomnia
↑ Muscle spasms, hypertension, convulsion, Tourette’s Syndrome and epilepsy
↑ Dry skin and wrinkles
↑ Poor digestion, bloating, flatulence, and constipation
When your neurotransmitters, including GABA, are in balance, you feel motivated, productive and energetic. And you feel calm and relaxed during downtime.
When GABA levels are low you feel filled with dread, you’re constantly worried, you have racing thoughts, and you’re frequently late and disorganized.[vii]
Many people in this GABA-slump resort to high carbohydrate foods, and drugs or alcohol to relax.
GABA benefits
The amino acid L-glutamine is the precursor to GABA production in your body. L-Glutamine is a precursor the synthesis of L-glutamate. Glutamate is your body’s most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter. Which is responsible for attention span, brain energy, learning ability, memory, and staying awake. 
An enzyme called glutamate decarboxylase converts glutamate to GABA. It does it with the help of the active form of Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate (P5P)).
The amino acid taurine helps increase the communication and productivity of this enzyme. And zinc helps the release of GABA from its receptors.
When this process works efficiently, you feel relaxed with no stress or feelings of anxiety. And you get a more restful night’s sleep.
How does GABA feel?
When you balance GABA levels in your brain, you feel relaxed and calm. But many neurohackers who try using GABA as a supplement don’t feel the effects. Because some research shows that the GABA molecule is too large to cross the blood-brain barrier.[viii]
If you do feel the calming effects of GABA within a ½ hour of taking it, it may mean you have a “leaky” blood-brain barrier. Not a good thing.[ix] Because if GABA can get through, all kinds of nasty stuff can get through too. Including toxins, undigested food particles and anything else in your blood stream that shouldn’t be in your brain.
You can learn how to fix a “leaky” blood-brain barrier in this article here > How to Heal a Leaky Blood-Brain Barrier. But the good news is, supplementary GABA can also benefit other functions in your body.
GABA is found in your adrenal glands, pituitary gland, pancreas and your sex organs.[x] GABA is also anti-inflammatory, and has an immune benefit. When all these are running optimally, you’ll feel good.
We’ll also cover other ways to boost GABA levels in our brain in the “Type of GABA to Buy” section of this article.
GABA Clinical Research
GABA was identified as a neurotransmitter several decades ago. And there had been a lot of research on GABA published since. But most of it is focused on how GABA works. And the drugs and chemicals which affect its action.
There is very little research available on using GABA as a supplement. Likely because many scientists believe that GABA taken as a supplement will not cross the blood-brain barrier.
GABA Increases Human Growth Hormone
Bodybuilders and athletes use supplementary GABA to help repair and build muscle. And there are several studies supporting the notion that GABA increases Human Growth Hormone.
In one study, researchers worked with 19 subjects who were given a single oral dose of 5 grams of GABA. 18 subjects were given a placebo during this trial.
3 hours after the administration of GABA, blood samples were taken. The team reported that “GABA caused a significant elevation of plasma growth hormone levels”.[xi]
GABA helps Reduce Insomnia
A Los Angeles study conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial with 18 patients with sleep disorders. The patients received either a placebo, or Gabadone (a combination of GABA and 5-hydroxytryptophan).
The difference between the two groups of sleep-deprived patients was significant. The Gabadone group fell asleep faster, stayed asleep longer, and had a better quality of sleep than the placebo group.[xii]
GABA Recommended Dosage
The recommended daily dosage of GABA is 500 to 1000 mg for a relaxation or calming effect.
Some neurohackers notice an immediate relaxing effect, while others need to take it for a couple weeks before it starts to kick in.
L-Arginine which increases nitric oxide may also help supplementary GABA cross the blood-brain barrier.[xiii]
PharmaGABA™ which is a natural form of GABA produced with the help of Lactobacillus hilgardii bacteria is dosed at 50 – 200 mg per day.
GABA Side Effects
GABA is considered very safe when taken in normal recommended doses.
Bodybuilders who use much higher doses of GABA do report experiencing flushing, tingling, a spike in heart rate and blood pressure, and anxiety.
Type of GABA to Buy
GABA as a supplement is available in tablet, capsule and powder.
Scientists have shown that GABA does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier. But many neurohackers report feeling a calming effect when using GABA.
PharmaGABA™ is a natural form of GABA made using Lactobacillus hilgardii bacteria. The same bacteria used to ferment vegetables when making the Korean cabbage dish called kimchi. This form seems to be effective in helping mood.
Another safe way to change GABA action in the brain is to use any of several commonly used herbs, vitamins and minerals.
Valerian root[xiv], American Ginseng and Kava Kava work by increasing the effect of GABA on its receptors.
Extracts of green, black and oolong tea also elicit a GABA effect.[xv]
Magnesium binds to GABA receptor sites and increases its effect.[xvi]
Taurine protects against glutamate over-stimulation. And this inhibitory effect acts as an anxiolytic (anti-anxiety).
The neurotransmitter Serotonin enhances GABA. So precursors to Serotonin like tryptophan and 5-HTP can increase GABA action in the brain.
The amino acid Theanine in tea provides a calming effect. Theanine inhibits glutamate uptake which would increase GABA levels in the brain.[xvii]
Suntheanine, which is a branded from of L-Theanine is also found in some pre-formulated nootropic stacks including Mind Lab Pro®.
And Phenibut, which is a derivative of GABA developed in Russia, also increases levels of GABA in the brain. While some report that Phenibut causes drowsiness and fatigue, it’s a much safer way to boost GABA than with a pharmaceutical like Valium or Xanax. But Phenibut is no longer easily available in many countries including the USA.
Nootropics Expert Recommendation
GABA 500 – 1,000 mg per day. 
We recommend using GABA as a nootropic supplement if you’re feeling anxiety or stress. And to calm or keep in check some of the stimulatory effects of some nootropics.
Your body does make GABA on its own from glutamate in your brain. Most healthy people have an adequate supply of GABA.
But if you’re dealing with anxiety or stress and need some extra help in calming things down, GABA can help.
While GABA does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier, you have many other options available for regulating or boosting GABA, if GABA as a supplement doesn’t work for you.
We suggest trying a GABA supplement first at a dose of 500 mg.
Or try one of the readily available GABA supplements made by major supplement makers containing PharmaGABA™.
Another safe option for regulating GABA levels is to use a high quality multivitamin that contains Vitamin B6 and zinc which influences the way GABA works in your brain.
Check the “Available Forms” section of this article for details.
[i] Nemeroff C.B. “The role of GABA in the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders.” Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 2003;37(4):133-46. (source)
[ii] Petroff O.A. “GABA and glutamate in the human brain.” Neuroscientist 2002 Dec;8(6):562-73. (source)
[iii] “HOW DRUGS AFFECT NEUROTRANSMITTERS” McGill University Canada (source)
[iv] Abdou A.M., Higashiguchi S., Horie K., Kim M., Hatta H, Yokogoshi H. “Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans.” Biofactors. 2006;26(3):201-8. (source)
[v] Abdou A.M., Higashiguchi S., Horie K., Kim M., Hatta H, Yokogoshi H. “Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans.” Biofactors. 2006;26(3):201-8. (source)
[vi] Enna S.J. “Role of gamma-aminobutyric acid in anxiety.” Psychopathology. 1984;17 Suppl 1:15-24. (source)
[vii] Struzyńska L., Sulkowski G. “Relationships between glutamine, glutamate, and GABA in nerve endings under Pb-toxicity conditions.” Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 2004 Jun;98(6):951-8. (source)
[viii] Kuriyama K., Sze P.Y. “Blood-brain barrier to H3-γ-aminobutyric acid in normal and amino oxyacetic acid-treated animals” Neuropharmacology Volume 10, Issue 1, January 1971, Pages 103–108 (source)
[ix] Montagne A., et. Al. “Blood-brain barrier breakdown in the aging human hippocampus.” Neuron 2015 Jan 21;85(2):296-302 (source)
[x] Watanabe M., Maemura K., Kanbara K., Tamayama T., Hayasaki H. “GABA and GABA receptors in the central nervous system and other organs.” International Revue of Cytology. 2002;213:1-47. (source)
[xi] Cavagnini F., Invitti C., Pinto M., Maraschini C., Di Landro A., Dubini A., Marelli A. “Effect of acute and repeated administration of gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) on growth hormone and prolactin secretion in man.” Acta Endocrinologica (Copenhagen). 1980 Feb;93(2):149-54. (source)
[xii] Shell W., Bullias D., Charuvastra E., May LA., Silver D.S. “A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of an amino acid preparation on timing and quality of sleep.” American Journal of Therapeutics. 2010 Mar-Apr;17(2):133-9. (source)
[xiii] Shyamaladevi N., Jayakumar A.R., Sujatha R., Paul V., Subramanian E.H. “Evidence that nitric oxide production increases gamma-amino butyric acid permeability of blood-brain barrier.” Brain Research Bulletin. 2002 Jan 15;57(2):231-6. (source)
[xiv] Yuan C.S., Mehendale S., Xiao Y., Aung H.H., Xie J.T., Ang-Lee M.K. “The gamma-aminobutyric acidergic effects of valerian and valerenic acid on rat brainstem neuronal activity.” Anesthesia and Analgesia. 2004 Feb;98(2):353-8 (source)
[xv] Hossain S.J., Hamamoto K., Aoshima H., Hara Y. “Effects of tea components on the response of GABA(A) receptors expressed in Xenopus Oocytes.” Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 2002 Jul 3;50(14):3954-60. (source)
[xvi] Möykkynen T., Uusi-Oukari M., Heikkilä J., Lovinger D.M., Lüddens H., Korpi E.R. “ Magnesium potentiation of the function of native and recombinant GABA(A) receptors.” Neuroreport. 2001 Jul 20;12(10):2175-9. (source)
[xvii] Sugiyama T., Sadzuka Y. “Theanine and glutamate transporter inhibitors enhance the antitumor efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents.” Biochim Biophys Acta. 2003 Dec 5;1653(2):47-59. (source)
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Hi David,
I have a problem with the methylation pathway and my body does not convert glutamate to GABA as it should. I can’t take any glutamine or GABA supplements (it just converts back to glutamate very quickly). Also folate is not being used properly which then coverts also to glutamate too. I made the mistake of taking a high dose of folate yesterday and was awake most of the night.. My question is what is the best way to reduce glutamate in the brain? It’s impacting my sleep pretty bad
I take Lithium Orotate 20mg a day
Matt, Lithium Orotate could help a little because it protects against glutamate toxicity. But rather than using all 20 mg at once I suggest splitting it into 4 doses for use throughout your day.
But Lithium alone or avoiding glutamate is not going to solve your problem. Because the Gln/Gly(GABA) cycle is critical especially in how your brain works. Please read the “overview” section of my L-Glutamine review here: https://nootropicsexpert.com/l-glutamine/
Problems with the methylation pathway is well above my area of expertise. But there are guys who deal with this all the time. Here is a clinical study addressing exactly what you are dealing with and with a solution if you have the patience to read through it: https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00062.2017
Alright, thanks David I’ll give it a read.
The thing is David I took a high dose of methylfolate (around 2-3mg) and I’ve had insommnia the last 2 nights. I had been taking a multi that had 400mcg.. I read in your B3 article to take Niacin to relieve the side effects which will be my next move. I was also taking 1600mg of SAMe for the last 7 months or so which was working great.. So my thought is that the high dose of L-MTHF put me into over methylation. My question is would it be wise to keep taking the SAMe or would that only add to the problem??? Also, how long do the side effects last, do you know? I’ve obviosly stopped the high dose.
Matt, that is a high dose for SAM-e. Some research and many user reports say once you get the benefit you are looking for with SAM-e you should reduce your dose. Some go as low as 100 mg as their maintenance dose. See my SAM-e review for more on this: https://nootropicsexpert.com/sam-e/
Thanks David, I had been feeling ok with 1600mg so I just continued with it. I’m going to lower the dose for sure.. But WOW people NEED TO BE CAREFUL with methylfolate. Just 1 2-3mg dose has me in a very bad state. I did not pay attention to your dosage notes for some reason with that one which is what I usually do and I’m paying the price. I originally thought the problem was glutamate over excitation but not so. It was too much folate to the brain and overmethylation so I think. Not fun, but thank you David for the work you put in here, I need to follow the dosage notes more clearly. More is not always better. I was already getting plenty of folate with 400mcg from my multi…
Also, does it have to be niacin or can I use niacinamide or any other version to quell the side effects?
It should be regular, plain old niacin as far as I know from my research. My most recent experience with niacin was working with a group on treating COVID-19. The only form that worked was regular niacin.
Ah ok, I went ahead and got the niacinamide. I’ll see how it works out and pick up the regular. Thanks David
Hi David, who would be the expert on specific aspects of something like this (problems with the methylation pathway)? Is this basically the domain of neuroscientists? Thanks for your very helpful website.
John, that’s the thing. Mainstream medicine does not do well with this type of issue. Best to look locally for a functional medicine doctor, alternative medicine doctor or naturopathic doctor.
Use each of those a keyword phrases and do a search for something like this: “alternative medicine doctor near me”.
John, Dr. Ben Lynch specializes in methylation. He has his own website and youtube channel. David is right mainstream medicine does not do well with this type of issue.. AT ALL
Hello David, I took Zopiclone too long and too often. I will try to taper it. Which nootropics can help prevent or ease withdrawal symptoms?
There isn’t anything you can take in the way of supplements for this. It’s like coming off of benzos and it is not pleasant. Because the drug has messed with the sensitivity of GABAa receptors, ion channels, gene expression, etc.
Hallow David , can I take gaba supplement with magnesium l threonate thanks….
Yes you can.
What is the recommended for GABA? Says 250-500 on the anxiety article and the list article. Thanks!
Phil, if you are referring to the best dosage for GABA then it is 250 – 500 mg per day if you are using PharmaGABA. But with synthetic GABA (plain, ordinary GABA), it is not very bioavailable and it will take up to 1,000 mg per day of synthetic GABA.
Thanks – split dose or not? When to take? Water or fat soluble? Thanks!
Phil, most use GABA before bed and take it with water because it is water-soluble. So, if your dose of PharmaGABA for instance was 250 mg you would take that as one dose about 60 minutes before bed.
Which supplements increase the normal transmission of the GABA?
I’m asking because I started using Zopiclone drug. Zopiclone and benzodiazepines bind to the same sites on GABAA-containing receptors, causing an enhancement of the actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic and adverse effects of zopiclone. Because the drug is very addictive I would like to start take the supplements instead of drugs.
Peter, the only supplement that I know of that attaches to the GABAa receptor is magnesium. And you need a chelated form of magnesium to cross the blood-brain barrier.
The only way to physically increase GABA levels in your system including your gut and brain are GABA and L-Glutamine. PharmaGABA is naturally made and you can use smaller doses than with synthetic GABA.
Which is better, GABA alone or GABA combined with Vitamin B6?
Supplementing with GABA will increase your GABA levels.
An enzyme called glutamate decarboxylase converts glutamate to GABA with the help of Vitamin B6 (P-5-P). This is where you get GABA from if you are not supplementing with GABA.
So, one is not better than the other. But if you need more GABA then you need to supplement with GABA.
Would you recommend a product with GABA, Tryptophan, Tianine and Magnesium?
Aminos, if you mean by “Tianine” to really mean L-Theanine then it looks like a product worth trying.
Is GABA Pharm the same as regular GABA and do they differ in dosage and timing?
Aminos, scroll up to the section “Type of GABA to Buy” for an explanation of PharmaGABA. Regular GABA is typically dosed 500 – 1,000 mg and PharmaGABA is usually dosed much lower at 250 mg. Both are usually taken before bed because they’ll make you sleepy. If dosed earlier in the day use a lower dose of either one.
Dear David, i have a question; greetings from Quebec, Canada. my daughter is 14, getting 15. She has panic attacks, anxiety, also nauseous.. we tried everything, psychologist etc. But nothing helps. Are Gaba ok for teenagers of 14 and how about L-gulatomine . Thanks in advance.
Ken, I cannot advise you on whether any of these supplements are “safe” for your daughter. Because I’m not qualified to do so. But thing for a minute about what exactly GABA and L-Glutamine are. They are naturally produced and used by your body from the day you were born. So what do you think? 🙂
Ken,
My daughter, 13 years old, suffered from anxiety, social anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation and mood issues. It was very scary, it tried a variety of supplements with no benefit. Finally we switched her to a healthy keto diet like recommended by Dr Berg. Keto fixed 95 percent of the issues. I still think she needs some additional supplementation, but she is already like a different child. The problem was blood sugar related.
Regards,
Steve
David, I have appreciated your videos and your writing about neurotransmitters. I have had anxiety and stress for the past few years. It is most problematic when I wake up in the middle of the night and spend 1-2 hours trying to get back to sleep. I have no problem getting to sleep when I first go to bed.
In June 2021 I took a neurotransmitter test that was analyzed by NeuroLab, a division of Sanesco. The results show I am extremely high in Seratonin and slightly high in Nor-Epinepherine. I am very low in GABA, Epinepherine, and Glutamate. My goal is to be in the optimal ranges for each neurotransmitter, rather than being unbalanced and out of the optimal range for any of these neurotransmitters. I stopped taking 5-HTP because it may have been the cause of the extremely high seratonin.
I’m new to trying to understand all of this, although I now have your book. I’m taking Macuna Puriens, L-Theanine, Magnesium, herbs for anxiety, and I’m taking PharmaGABA from Designs for Health. It is in the form of tablets that can be chewed or disolved sublinguily. Chewing or disolving is supposed to get the product to my brain faster than simply swallowing PharmaGABA. I take 200 mg before bed and 200 mg in the middle of the night. I also take 6 mg of SR melatonin before bed. I’m still awake from 40 minutes to 2 hours in the middle of the night. I see from your writing I may be able to take an additional amount of PharmaGABA. Correct? Any suggestions?
Also, what do you think of the Organic Acid Test for measuring neurotransmitters and nutrients?
Thank you for your response!
Cathy
Cathy, I don’t put much faith into neurotransmitter testing because they can’t test how much of each is in your brain which is what counts. How much of each is in your bloodstream or urine does not corelate to how much is in your brain.
But assuming you are high in serotonin and low in GABA it makes sense to avoid anything that increases serotonin. You can increase GABA levels with PharmaGABA or L-Glutamine which goes on to make glutamate then GABA then Human Growth Hormone.
I highly recommend that you stop using melatonin and see if that helps you stay asleep. Because 6 mg is way too much melatonin. Your brain naturally uses only .5 – .8 mg melatonin during the night. When you use too much nasty things can happen.
If you insist on using melatonin it’s better to use a natural source like Tart Cherry Juice from concentrate (not a juice blend) which will gently provide the melatonin you may need.
Thank you!
Hello, I have the following question. Is the effect of taking GABA + L-Arginine similar to the effect of taking Phenibut, and can it also build a dependency similar to the one of Phenibut?
Thank you!
Petar, it is highly unlikely that that combo will mimic the effects of Phenibut. And I doubt you’ll develop any real dependency on GABA + L-Arginine either. Nothing like Phenibut for sure.
If you want to start slow and with one supplement which one would you chose for panic disorder, panic attacks and heighted anxiety based off of new panic attacks. I think sometimes it is hard for people to understand how hard it is to take new meds bc of the anxiety of the side effects, possible anxiety inducing feelings they may cause naturally. So it is easier to start with one vitamin and work my way up to slowly to ease the panic! So Inositol or maybe Gaba to start with? Any suggestions?
KW, anxiety can be cause by a disfunction of any of your major neurotransmitters. Not just GABA. The challenge is figuring out which one is dysfunctional as explained in this article: https://nootropicsexpert.com/best-nootropics-for-anxiety/. That walks you through how to test each one until you figure out what is causing the problem.
Another option is use the search function top right of the top menu and search for “panic” and see what else turns up.
Hi David, Is it better to take Pharma Gaba with or without meal? Thank you
Jozef, it does not matter because PharmaGABA is water soluble.
Quick question on your latest video on GABA you stated taking that with
Largonine was good correct
is this the Supplement you were talking of?
Natural Factors, L-Arginine
is this the stuff
Natural Factors – Pharma GABA
which would be the better forum will this to increase the receptors naturally in the brain between the two options
PharmaGABA is that different to Benzo as in I can stop whenever I want to? I want to avoid benzo like the plague as I read its not good long term
What I wanna Aim at is the following
NAC – 650MG
Inositol – already taking 2G per day
GABA
To calm me making sure this is all good and safe
Thank you
Andrew, studies show that combining GABA with L-Arginine boosts its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier.
But I think that manufacturer of PharmaGABA would argue that Arginine is not necessary with their version of GABA because it already seems to be more bioavailable.
Combining the two may work even better.
Your combo is safe to use.