The very first racetam nootropic was created by Dr. Corneliu Giurgea at the Belgian-based pharmaceutical company UCB Pharma in the 1964.
Dr. Giurgea’s intention was to develop a calming-type drug for motion sickness. GABA is the calming neurotransmitter and Piracetam is a cyclic derivative of GABA.
But in spite of its connection with GABA, Piracetam didn’t show any behavior associated with this calming neurotransmitter. And cannot directly affect GABA receptors.
Instead, Dr. Giurgea discovered that Piracetam was able to boost cognitive abilities even in healthy people. The company launched this new ‘drug’ as ‘Nootropil’ in Europe in the early 1970’s.
Table of Contents
How do racetams work?
Dozens of racetam derivatives have since been developed based on the original Piracetam. All synthetic compounds, racetams share a pyrrolidone nucleus at their chemical structure core.
Several of these racetams are now sold as prescription drugs in countries around the world. And are prescribed for dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, stroke recovery, ADHD, epilepsy and other neurocognitive disorders.
In the USA, racetams are available OTC without a prescription. But oddly enough are not classified as “dietary supplements”. Instead, the racetams described below are offered for “research” purposes only.
If you are new to the world of nootropics, and would like to try one of the racetams, but are not sure which one to choose, this post may help.
Below is a brief description of the 7 most popular racetams in use today. You don’t need to be a “nootropics expert” to use any of these compounds. But you need to know how to use them.
Each racetam has a live link through to a full review of that nootropic. Including what it is, where it came from, what it’s used for, how it works in your brain, clinical studies, dosage recommendations, side effects and where to buy them.
NOTE: Each of the racetams in this post affect acetylcholine levels in your brain. And must be taken with a quality choline supplement; Alpha GPC or CDP-Choline.
These racetams will not work if used without a choline supplement. And will likely produce a racetam-headache. More on dosage recommendations at the end of this post.
Top 7 Racetam Nootropics
Piracetam for Cognitive function
Piracetam is considered the first true nootropic ever developed. It was synthesized by Dr. Corneliu Giurgea at UCB Pharma in 1964.
Since Piracetam is a cyclic derivative of the calming neurotransmitter GABA, Dr. Giurgea intended this first nootropic to be a calming type of drug for motion sickness. Turns out that’s not what happened.
Instead, Dr. Giurgea found that Piracetam as able to boost cognition and overall brain health even in healthy people.
Piracetam modulates AMPA and NMDA receptors in the brain which increases the effectiveness of glutamate. It improves the flow of acetylcholine (ACh) and sensitivity and density of ACh receptors.[i] And increases cerebral blood flow.
Many people new to nootropics start with Piracetam because it’s safe and has decades of clinical studies supporting its use. But many are often disappointed with Piracetam after trying it a couple of times.
Piracetam didn’t work for them because they don’t know how to use it.
It takes 2 – 3 weeks of consistent daily use of Piracetam before you notice the benefits. To counter this, experienced neurohackers suggest starting with an ‘attack dose’ of 3,000 mg of Piracetam 3-times per day for the first 3 days.
But once you start noticing the benefits of Piracetam, you should be in a better mood, less social anxiety, heightened creativity, improved verbal fluency and eventually you’ll notice your memory is better.
Recommended dosage of Piracetam is 1,600 mg 3-times per day.
I recommend: Cosmic Nootropic – Piracetam
Aniracetam to Reduce Anxiety Symptoms
Aniracetam is my favorite racetam. It’s a fat-soluble ampakine nootropic developed at F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG in the 1978. Aniracetam boosts brain cell signaling by increasing the effectiveness of glutamate which helps focus and concentration for improved cognitive performance.
Aniracetam affects the brain’s cholinergic system which helps release 200 – 300% more acetylcholine in your brain which helps with focus, clarity of thought, memory and recall. And it seems to affect dopamine and serotonin receptors in your brain as well.
Aniracetam distinguishes itself from the rest of the racetams by acting as an effective anxiolytic. Many who use this nootropic find that it helps reduce anxiety, depression and fear.
Some biohackers claim that Aniracetam is great for boosting creativity as it enhances productivity in the right brain hemisphere.
Recommended dosage of Aniracetam is 750 mg twice per day.
I recommend: Smart Nutrition – Aniracetam
Coluracetam for Memory Enhancement
Coluracetam is a fat-soluble racetam nootropic created by Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma of Japan in 2005. It boosts your brain’s ability to convert choline to acetylcholine (ACh) through the high affinity choline uptake (HACU) process. Leading to better learning and memory.[ii]
And Coluracetam increases the effectiveness of glutamate in your brain resulting in better focus and concentration, and other forms of cognitive enhancement such as preventing memory loss.
Neurohackers use Coluracetam for the cognitive effects mentioned above. But prefer this racetam because it also enhances sound and color.
Recommended dosage of Coluracetam is 20 – 80 mg per day.
Higher dosages should be split into two smaller doses. One dose first thing in the morning and then again at noon.
Nefiracetam for Improved Memory Formation
Nefiracetam is a fat-soluble racetam nootropic developed by Daiichi Seiyaku in the 1990’s as a treatment for cerebrovascular disorders.
Nefiracetam potentiates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Boosting the release of GABA and glutamate. Producing a calming effect while improving neuroplasticity and boosting learning and memory, while preventing symptoms of cognitive decline.
Nefiracetam enhances signaling of GABA on GABAa receptors when GABA is too low. And has a suppressive effect when GABA is too high. Leading to stabilized mood and sociability. No mood swings!
One American study with 159 stroke patients found that 600 – 900 mg of Nefiracetam daily for 12 weeks produced a significant improvement in mood in the most severely depressed patients.[iii]
Nefiracetam also prolongs the opening of calcium channels. Keeping neurotransmitters active longer. Improving memory formation and long-term memory and recall.
Students report this is the best racetam for studying because when using Nefiracetam they have better attention span, motivation, and less apathy and mental fatigue.
Many users report cognitive benefits such as calm focus and being able to articulate thoughts, and improved speaking ability when using Nefiracetam.
And one of the coolest benefits are the visual effects when using Nefiracetam. It feels like your brain is processing a broader spectrum of what’s in your visual range. Nature and your surroundings look more vibrant and beautiful.
Recommended dosage of Nefiracetam is up to 900 mg per day.
Use smaller dosages like 400 mg once in the morning and another dose at noon.
Oxiracetam to Eliminate Brain Fog
Oxiracetam was the 3rd racetam nootropic and developed in 1977. It enhances choline-acetyltransferase (ChAT) in your brain which makes more acetylcholine. Leading to improved short-term and long-term memory. And eliminating ‘brain fog’.
Oxiracetam also increases the density of binding sites for neurotransmitters on AMPA receptors. Resulting in a stimulant-effect without any of the negative side effects associated with stimulants.[iv]
People who use Oxiracetam report that it
Oxiracetam report that it has profound effects in clearing brain fog and enhancing focus and motivation. Especially when learning new material or working through a tedious task.
And you should experience a significant improvement in recall. Reading is easier by giving you the ability to get through more pages faster and retain the information for later. Great for preparing for an exam or your next board presentation.
Oxiracetam also helps improve mood.
Recommended Oxiracetam dosage is 750 – 1,500 mg per day. Divided in two equal doses. One dose in the morning, and one in the early afternoon.
I recommend: Smart Nutrition – Oxiracetam
Phenylpiracetam for Increased Blood Flow
Phenylpiracetam was created by adding a phenyl group to Piracetam by Russian scientists in 1983. To boost the physical and mental performance of astronauts during space flight. It’s currently used by Russian cosmonauts on the International Space Station.
And it turns out that Phenylpiracetam is very effective in boosting athletic performance , such as increasing blood flow. It provides significant stimulatory effects and helps you resist cold. The World Anti-Doping Agency has banned Phenylpiracetam for athletes in the Olympics and other professional sports.
Phenylpiracetam increases the density of acetylcholine (ACh), NMDA, GABA and dopamine receptors in the brain. More receptors mean more binding sites for neurotransmitters that affect memory formation, cognition, sleep and mood.[v]
It increases blood flow in the brain which provides more oxygen and nutrients to brain cells boosting alertness, cognition, focus and mood.
And Phenylpiracetam helps reduce symptoms of anxiety, depression and fear without the type of side affects you get from antidepressants. Likely because it increases the density of receptors for acetylcholine (ACh), GABA and NMDA.
Phenylpiracetam also provides an ‘anti-convulsive’ action in the brain which has been shown to be an effective treatment for epilepsy and other cognitive disorders.
Many neurohackers say Phenylpiracetam is the strongest nootropic they’ve ever experienced. It’s highly bioavailable , easily passing through the blood-brain barrier, leading you to experience the effects within 30 minutes of taking it.
Recommended Phenylpiracetam dosage is 100 mg twice per day. One Phenylpiracetam dose in the morning, and one in the early afternoon.
I recommend: Cosmic Nootropic – Phenylpiracetam.
Pramiracetam for Focus and Concentration
Pramiracetam was first synthesized by scientists at Parke-Davis in the late 1970’s. Pramiracetam boosts high affinity choline uptake (HACU) which has a profound effect on the synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Helping cognition, memory, recall and focus.
Unlike some of the other racetams, Pramiracetam does not directly influence GABA, dopamine, norepinephrine, or serotonin in the brain. So is not a good choice if you’re looking to improve mood or anxiety issues.[vi]
Many neurohackers report that taking Pramiracetam quickly provides an intense increase in focus and for some even a boost in confidence.
It is reported to be great for intense, long study sessions. Or when you face logical, attention-based tasks where you need sharp focus.
Others report improved recall, fluidity of thought, and ease of verbal communication and numerical calculations.
Recommended Pramiracetam dosage is 250 – 400 mg up to 3-times per day. One dose in the morning, and one in the early afternoon, and if you’re doing a 3rd dose do it later in the afternoon.
I recommend: Cosmic Nootropic – Pramiracetam.
Which racetam is best for you?
Each of the above recommendations in the racetam family share a pyrrolidone nucleus core. And have some similarities like boosting acetylcholine and modulating glutamate in your brain.
But each racetam also has a unique mechanism of action providing unique benefits. All are considered non-toxic and safe to use if you follow dosage recommendations.
If you’re just starting out and want something safe, you may want to try Piracetam. But you need a lot of it to work (i.e. several grams per day).
If you are a student, you may want to try Nefiracetam, Oxiracetam, or Pramiracetam.
Pramiracetam use is also associated with improved cognitive function as a supplemental treatment for traumatic brain injuries.
Aniracetam is a very effective anxiolytic and helps relieve anxiety and depression.
If you are an astronaut or athlete you may want to try Phenylpiracetam for the reasons detailed above. But DO NOT attempt using this nootropic if you are an Olympic athlete. And check your professional sports association to see if this racetam is on their “banned” list of substances just to be on the safe side.
And Coluracetam is worth trying if you’d like to see and hear the world in more vivid colors and sound.
But as I mentioned near the beginning of this post, each racetam nootropic must be dosed with Alpha GPC or CDP-Choline. Because each racetam affects acetylcholine levels in your brain.
Each of these racetams also stack well with Mind Lab Pro® and Performance Lab® Mind because each of these preformulated stacks contain Cognizin® (CDP-Choline).
Some of the above racetams are fat-soluble. You must take them with a healthy fat. Try a tablespoon of unrefined coconut oil to ensure absorption.
And finally, many of the above racetams are only available in certain countries like the USA as a nootropic that you can easily buy online. Many are sold as prescription drugs in countries around the world. Check your local regulations to see if they are available in your country.
Several racetams I detailed above are available from Cosmic Nootropic. The company also offers a bundle if you’d like to sample several different racetams including: Noopept, Piracetam, and Phenylpiracetam. Get that bundle here: Cosmic Nootropic – Bundle
[i] Stoll L., Schubert T., Müller W.E. “Age-related deficits of central muscarinic cholinergic receptor function in the mouse: partial restoration by chronic piracetam treatment.” Neurobiology of Aging. 1992 Jan-Feb;13(1):39-44. (source)
[ii] Takashina K., Bessho T., Mori R., Eguchi J., Saito K. “MKC-231, a choline uptake enhancer: (2) Effect on synthesis and release of acetylcholine in AF64A-treated rats.” Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna). 2008 Jul;115(7):1027-35. (source)
[iii] Robinson R.G., Jorge R.E., Clarence-Smith K. “Double-blind randomized treatment of poststroke depression using nefiracetam.” Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2008 Spring;20(2):178-84. (source)
[iv] Nicoletti F., Casabona G., Genazzani A.A., Copani A., Aleppo G., Canonico P.L., Scapagnini U. “Excitatory amino acids and neuronal plasticity: modulation of AMPA receptors as a novel substrate for the action of nootropic drugs.” Functional Neurology. 1992 Sep-Oct;7(5):413-22. (source)
[v] Firstova Y.Y., Abaimov D.A., Kapitsa I.G., Voronina T.A., Kovalev G.I. “The effects of scopolamine and the nootropic drug phenotropil on rat brain neurotransmitter receptors during testing of the conditioned passive avoidance task” Neurochemical Journal June 2011, Volume 5, Issue 2, pp 115-125 (source)
[vi] Pavlík A., Benesová O., Dlohozková N. “Effects of nootropic drugs on brain cholinergic and dopaminergic transmission.” Activitas Nervosa Superior (Praha). 1987 Mar;29(1):62-5. (source)
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Could the headache be due to decreased blood flow to the brain after the piracetam has weakened, for example, my last dose of piracetam was taken at 4:00 pm and I feel a headache at night and early in the morning.
Rese, the only reason I know of that causes a racetam-headache is lack of acetylcholine.
I understand the need to use a racetam with a choline supplement – would it make any sense to stagger them by taking the choline supplement first and then waiting some time (one hour perhaps) before taking the racetam?
Bern, that has not been my experience. I take CDP-Choline each time I take Aniracetam and it works.
Unfortunately I’m currently in a country where all racetams are either prescription or non-prescription, wondering if there might be any natural substitutes for racetams or other over the counter drugs?
I was also interested in coluracetam, but there are very few places where they sell it.
sorry for my english, all racetams are either prescription or not available.
Dan, there is no natural direct substitute for any of the racetams. And you are correct that they all started as prescription meds in various countries around the world.
“Piracetam modulates AMPA and NMDA receptors in the brain which increases the effectiveness of glutamate. It improves the flow of acetylcholine (ACh) and sensitivity and density of ACh receptors.[i] And increases cerebral blood flow.”
Doesn’t glutamate lower acetylcholine the other way around?
No
What do you recommend for someone with Alzheimer’s? For someone with ALS?
Phyllis, go to the Alzheimer’s section in this article for suggestions: https://nootropicsexpert.com/best-nootropics-for-the-aging-brain/
Not sure about ALS because I have not done the research on ALS.
I took 4 years of college at a university and the latest research I have been doing and experimenting taking it myself, has been the Nootropic “Bacopa monnerei” it has excellent info on treatment for ALS for which my father just past away last year of. If that helps.
I did not get a lot of sleep so I apologize in not saying the 4 years at college were “Psychology.”
Hi David,
Regarding the fat solubility of aniracetam — fat solubility is different from needing fat to be absorbed; a substance being fat soluble does not automatically mean we need to eat fat to absorb it (human cells are coated with a phospholipid bilayer. Phospholipid = fat.) So it does not in fact mean aniracetam needs to be taken with fat, and fat might even actually decrease its absorption in the gut since it will absorb into the fat, and some of it might be excreted in the feces.
So, essentially, aniracetam does NOT have to be taken with fat to be absorbed. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03258428
Personally, I take it sublingually with great results (on an empty stomach).
Cristina, whatever works for you but I disagree with your take on how to digest fat-soluble ingredients.
And BTW, the clinical study you linked to talks about the short half-life of Aniracetam and its poor bioavailability. Not its solubility.
The company link you provide to purchase piracetam doesn’t carry it. Do you have another recommendation?
Robert, for now I do not have another suggestion. This is a moving target when it comes to the racetams and it’s nearly impossible to find someone who sells any of them. As soon as I find someone reliable I will let the community know.
Hi David,
Love your site. Great info and well laid out.
Any new sources for racetams yet?
Thanks,
Bill
Bill this company carries some of the racetams and I’ve been using them and like them: https://nootropicsexpert.com/go/aniracetam/
Thanks for the informative post. I’ve been researching nootropics for a while and I find myself going in circles. I’m a Software Engineer of 21 years and often struggle to keep up with emerging technologies. There was a time when I could easily learn a new programming language or framework over a weekend and give a fluent presentation on it the following Monday.
I would love to get that back, but I don’t know where to start. I currently take Adderall and Modafinil. (Never at the same time, but sometimes on the same day). They’re great for focus, but not for learning or memory recall.
I did a 5 week round of Cerebrolysin and didn’t notice any differences.
I’m currently considering HA-FGL, Semax, Dihexa, or one of the Racetams.
Your input would be appreciated.
Clint, you are over complicating it. The key to success with nootropics is actually using them. And there is no one pill solution.
Put together a stack from this page: https://nootropicsexpert.com/best-nootropics-for-adhd-add/. Because I designed that formula to support the use of stimulants. I have also found that the nootropic supplements on that page also help the “aging” brain.
If you still need more help schedule a consultation with me.
I am suffering from CFS and DPDR. I have pretty intense brain fog all day long. I feel like phenylpiracetam is interesting for my symptoms. Does the efficacy long-term reduce? So do I need more and more for the same effects with racetams?
Are racetams actually good for the brain and the body? Are they a healthy compound long-term or are they stimulants that are helpful short-term but long-term will just end up being bad for you?
Arno, the racetams are considered non-toxic an safe to use and each is a prescription drug for various cognitive problems in countries around the world. With the exception of the USA of course.
But there is no known ‘cure’ for Depersonalization-derealization disorder (DPDR). You can try L-Theanine, Magnesium L-Threonate, and L-Tryptophan (before bed) and see if those help. Dosage recommendations are including in my individual reviews for each.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome can be caused by mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, a leaky gut and/or brain, hormone deficiency, nutrient deficiency, and more. None of the racetams will help with any of those causes.
Hi David,
I have found your article fascinating and helpful, thank you! I want to try either aniracetam or oxiracetam but I don’t know which actual supplements are the right ones to buy. It doesn’t seem as simple as just putting in the words and getting the result. How do I know I am buying the right thing.
I have tried all ranges of ashwaganda, GABA, HTP and even Adderall and all either don’t work or leave me feeling very rough headed.
I would love your guidance on the actual product to buy.
Thank you!
Try one with supplemental CDP-Choline for a month or two and see if it works for you. If not then try the other one. I personally love Aniracetam and have been using it daily for over 10 years.
David,
Your website has been extremely insightful on a number of levels. I’m 65 and looking to regain my energy, congnition and motivation. I’m new to racetams and have a few questions.
1) Can phosphatidylcholine be used for choline with racetams?
2) Why are racetams difficult to get? Many suppliers are currently out of stock, even the companies you recommend.
3)You mentioned that racetams cannot be sold as supplements in the U.S., but can as “research compounds”?
4) I have all the symptoms of low dopamine and have applied so many different stacks over the years, w/o much consistant success. Low dose Deprenyl may be my answer and something I’m willing to try.
Thanks,
Harold
Harold, the absence of racetams on the market is due to action by the FDA and supply chain issues. I think the FDA has had more to do with this than anything. Usually because the vendor has attracted their attention by making “healing” claims.
The racetams have always been sold as “research compounds” in the USA because they are not recognized as dietary supplements.
You can still get some of the racetams here: https://bit.ly/3FWsdBk. I need to update some of my links when I find the time.
But the best way to increase dopamine which naturally declines with age is my using 500 mg L-Tyrosine twice per day with a bioaction B-Complex.
And I also highly recommend you follow the suggestions on this page because give it a month and you’ll be amazed how you feel: https://nootropicsexpert.com/best-nootropics-for-the-aging-brain/
Hi David, Great site. I’ve just got some picomilin and I had Phenylpiracetam from before but never took consistently.
My question is can I mix with picomilin?
Also can you mix any of the racetams?
I have ADHD (45yrs) I find anxiety or emotion is my biggest Achilles.
Thank you in advance
Brendan, if you mean Picamilon I don’t see a problem. But be cautious about combining too many racetams. They ALL affect acetylcholine in your brain. Don’t forget that each of these racetams was developed as a prescription drug in another country for various issues.
There are plenty of other nootropic supplements that can help with anxiety. You just need to figure out the cause first to narrow your search.
And have you seen my ADHD article and protocol?
Do you know what is going on? Racetams are becoming very difficult to purchase – am out as of April 2022 and they’ve been difficult to come by since late 2021. I understand some supply chain issues, but this is ridiculous.
Deborah, the FDA sent warning letters to 4 or 5 sellers of racetams a few months ago. Everyone in the industry was aware of these warning letters and all stopped selling racetams as well as other “for research only” compounds.
Hi David!
What do you recommend for stomach pain? I have worst problem in the morning when I take Probiotic, CDP, NALT and B complex on empty stomach with tablespoon of cheap MCT oil. I’m afraid that taking nootropics with food will always decrease bioavaliability. I try warm tea every morning to help me get through this pain.
Thank you David!
Michael, try taking your supplements with food and see if that solves your problem first.
If not then try taking them one-at-a-time and give each one a day or two to see if it causes problems. That’s the only way to see if one of them is the culprit.
whats your opinion on Fasoracetam
Henry, very few animal studies and even fewer if any human trials showing that it works. There just simply isn’t enough evidence one way or the other that it’s a good option.
Hi David ,
I love reading your book Head first . I was looking to introduce my 7yr old with autism on nootropics especially the racetam ones which help with learning and cognition. Is Piracetam best or Fasoracetam(adhd too) what dosages are best 800mg Nootropil ok ? Please help
Sonal, clinical studies show the most success for Piracetam (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17929164/) and Oxiracetam (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12640-020-00169-1) for autism.
The study used 800 mg per day of Piracetam for that age group. But the Oxiracetam study was done with rats so we do not have the equivalent if used in a 7 yr. old. If we compared it to Piracetam the dose for Oxiracetam for this purpose would likely work out to be around 250 mg per day.
But keep in mind you’ll have the most success if using the racetam with a choline supplement. Either Alpha GPC or CDP-Choline.
Hey David,
Which of the racetams, other than Aniracetam, are safe to take with Adderall (prescribed for ADHD)?
I have had hit or miss experiences with Aniracetam, so I want to try others. Piracetam could work but I just don’t like how much I would have to take per day & buy.
All the info available on combining amphetamines or methylphenidate with racetams is sorely lacking. And I have a feeling you can fill in a much needed (at least for those prescribed a stim for ADHD) gap of info on the internet!
Thanks so much!
Best,
Adam
Adam, I suggest trying Oxiracetam and see if that works for you. Or you can try Noopept which I’ve had great success with. It’s lumped in with the racetams but is not truly part of the racetam-family of compounds.
Hi David,
What kind of daily Nooptropics would you recommend for someone who is about to undergoe some light form of Chemo and Radio Therapy Treatment and after an operation for a Tonsil Cancer?
Shaz, my area of expertise is the human brain. For the rest of the body you’ll need to find someone else who has the answers.
David, Thank you for the informative posts.
Is it advisable and is there a benefit to adding both Oxiracetam and Phenylpiracetam with your ADD stack? If so should the Alpha GPC be increased?
Thank you.
Rico, I would not recommend using both racetams but I’m more conservative than others in our community. The way I look at it is these are prescription drugs in some countries. And a doctor certainly would not write a script for both.
But that’s must my opinion. These are considered non-toxic and safe just by the original definition of the word nootropic. If you try it you may need to increase your Alpha GPC dose because your are doubling the demand for acetylcholine in your brain by using both.